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Overview - Grounded in the science of autism research
We are dedicated to using scientifically validated practices that
incorporate the latest academic research in the development of our
products. Our programs are based on existing interventions such as
Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) that have been proven effective in
the treatment of autism and our intervention tools and training
programs are being validated through ongoing rigorous research
studies funded by the U.S. Department of Education.
Scientific Basis
Several studies have indicated the validity and efficacy of using
Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA), cognitive-behavioral and
developmental techniques for treating the symptoms of autism (McEachin,
Smith, & Lovaas, 1993). Although some studies have demonstrated
efficacy for specific computerized interventions (e.g. Bosseler &
Massaro, 2003), no research to date has assessed the efficacy of
using a computerized comprehensive treatment and no software-based
program, to date, has provided naturalistic non-computer activities
for generalization. It is important that the validity of this type
of treatment be assessed, as computerized treatments for children
with autism and related disorders are quickly becoming a popular
trend with parents and schools. If computerized treatment programs
are shown to be effective, this alternative to treatment could save
parents and school districts millions of dollars on materials,
staffing, and training. In addition, providing parents with simple,
naturalistic, generalization activities is likely to result in more
widespread change in the child than software alone. Finding quality
intervention is often difficult. Offering a state-of-the-art
computerized intervention would allow easier access to quality
treatment for many families. Research supports the notion that
having access to effective treatment may reduce parental stress
levels (e.g. Hastings & Johnson, 2001). Having easy access to an
effective treatment would likely reduce stress levels in parents of
children with autism.
Using proven behavioral programs, psychologists have shown that they
can often improve the quality of life for many children with autism
and help them to integrate more successfully into society. More than
20 years of research and clinical data demonstrate that behavioral
programs represent the single best treatment for millions of
children (Sulzer-Azaroff & Mayer, 1991). This popular approach to
treatment for children with autism is termed Applied Behavioral
Analysis (ABA). ABA is a procedure that uses the principles of
learning theory (i.e. reinforcement and shaping) to improve
behaviors that are deemed socially significant. ÊABA is objective
and easily measurable. Research demonstrates that ABA interventions
result in positive behavioral changes (Baer, Wolf & Risley, 1987).
In 1987, Ivar Lovaas published his results of the implementation of
a type of ABA called Discrete Trial Training (DTT) using 38 children
who received 40 hours per week of DTT. Following treatment, many of
the children were able to attend regular education classrooms and
most children demonstrated increases in IQ scores. DTT tasks are
broken down into short simple pieces, or trials. Discrete Trial
Training involves a series of distinct repeated lessons or trials
taught one-to-one. Each trial consists of an antecedent, a
directive or request for the individual to perform an action; a
behavior, or response from the person; and a consequence, a
reaction from the therapist based upon the response of the person.
Positive reinforcers are selected by evaluating the individual's
preferences. DTT is typically performed by a therapist in a
one-on-one setting with the child. DTT has continued to be a popular
choice of intervention for children with autism and although it has
evolved since the 1987 Lovaas study, it continues to prove to be one
of the most effective interventions available for children with
autism. DTT has been used to successfully increase IQ, language, and
cognitive skills and has also been shown to have long-term success (McEachin,
Smith, & Lovaas, 1993).
It is important to note that the term ABA does not only apply to DTT
as is often implied in the popular media. ABA includes a variety of
approaches, many of which are more naturalistic than DTT, and which
demonstrate more generalization of learned skills. One example is
Pivotal Response Training (PRT), which is a naturalistic ABA
intervention developed by Koegel, et al. (1989). Two pivotal
behaviors were identified that appear to affect a wide range of
behaviors in children with autism: motivation and responsivity to
multiple cues. These behaviors are central to a wide area of
functioning so positive changes in these behaviors can have
widespread effects on other behaviors. PRT is able to increase the
generalization of new skills and increases the motivation of
children to perform the behaviors being taught. PRT works to
increase motivation by including components such as child choice,
turn-taking, reinforcing attempts and interspersing maintenance
tasks. PRT has been used to target language skills, play skills and
social behaviors in children with autism. Like DTT, PRT has been
shown to be effective in a number of published research studies
(e.g. Schreibman & Pierce, 1993). PRT and other naturalistic ABA
approaches have been shown to be effective for increasing language (Koegel,
Koegel, & McNerney, 2001), play (Stahmer, 1995), imitation
(Ingersoll, Schreibman & Tran 2003), social skills (Pierce &
Schreibman, 1995), and joint attention (Whalen & Schreibman, 2003).
Although generalization is almost always shown in these studies,
some of these studies have even shown collateral effects of
treatment to untargeted behaviors (e.g. Pierce & Schreibman, 1995;
Whalen, Schreibman, & Ingersoll, in press). Other naturalistic
interventions such as developmental models (e.g. Floortime and
Relationship Development Intervention (RDI)) have also been
successful in remediating some of the symptoms of autism (e.g.
Ingersoll, Dvortcsak, Whalen, and Sikora, in press).
Children with autism have frequently been shown to respond well to
treatments that involve visual supports such as videos (e.g.
Schreibman, Whalen, & Stahmer, 2000), pictures (e.g. Bryan & Gast,
2000), and computers (e.g. Bernard-Opitz, Sriram, & Nakhoda-Sapuan,
2001). Programs that emphasize visual support strategies are
commonly used in classrooms for children with autism and similar
disorders. For instance, the TEACCH program (developed in the 1970's
by developmental psychologist Eric Schopler) (Schopler, et al.,
1978) utilizes visual cues to increase independence and to teach new
skills to children with autism. The Picture Exchange Communication
System (PECS; Bondy 1998) also uses visual supports for
communication for children with autism and other children with
verbal difficulties. Social skills are often targeted using visual
social stories and research shows that this approach is effective
for children with autism (Lorimer, Simpson, Smith, & Ganz, 2002).
Recently, several studies have shown the efficacy of using computers
to teach children with autism and these studies show promising
outcomes (e.g. Moore, & Calvert, 2000). Bosseler and Massaro (2003)
developed and assessed a computer-animated tutor to teach vocabulary
and grammar to eight children with autism. Their program included
receptive and expressive language activities. This program was
successful in teaching language to all participants and
generalization to the children's natural environment was reported.
In another study, inappropriate verbalizations were decreased and
functional communication was increased using a computerized
intervention and these skills generalized to a classroom environment
(Hetzroni & Tannuous, 2004). Computerized techniques were also
utilized to teach social understanding to children with autism via
computerized social stories (Bernard-Opitz, Sriram, & Nakhoda-Sapuan,
2001). Children with autism did better with computerized visual
social stories than using traditional teaching techniques. These
studies suggest that children with autism are able to learn skills
on the computer efficiently and effectively and that these skills
may generalize to the natural environment.
An optimal program for children with autism should include programs
that target all of the associated deficits with the disorder.
Nonverbal and verbal communication (i.e. language), play, imitation,
social skills, behavior, and cognitive skills should all be targeted
for young children. In addition, although studies suggest that
skills learned on the computer may generalize to the natural
environment, some skills may not be mastered until taught
face-to-face (e.g. eye contact and following an eye gaze). Parents
and professionals should also be provided with strategies for
targeting behavioral difficulties commonly observed in autism such
as self-stimulatory behavior, repetitive behaviors, tantrums, etc.
An effective program should include easily accessible teaching tools
(e.g. software) for parents and teachers as well as suggestions for
using the learned skills in the child's natural environment (i.e.
generalization). In addition, it is critical to develop
interventions that are developmentally appropriate and that are
backed by research in developmental psychology. At TeachTown, we
bly believe in developing research-based products that are
developmentally appropriate and effective tools for autism
intervention.
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Research Studies
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